Information on China

Whitaker's Almanack Definitions

• Area – 9,596,961 sq. km
• Capital – Beijing; population, 12,213,900 (2009 est)
• Major cities – Changchun, Chengdu, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Harbin, Nanjing, Shanghai, Shenyang, Tianjin, Taiyuan, Wuhan, Xi'an
• Currency – Renminbi (RMB) or yuan (Y) of 10 jiao or 100 fen
• Population – 1,343,239,923 rising at 0.481 per cent a year (2012 est); Han Chinese (91.5 per cent), around 55 ethnic minorities 8.5 per cent (2000)
• Religion – officially atheist, but permits four state-registered religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, and Catholic and Protestant Christianity. It is difficult to estimate numbers, as many congregations worship in private; Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism are the predominant faiths but Christianity is growing rapidly
• Language – Mandarin (official), Cantonese, Shanghainese, Fuzhou, Xiang, Gan, Taiwanese
• Population density – 143 per sq. km (2010)
• Urban population – 44.9 per cent (2010 est)
• Median age (years) – 35.5 (2011 est)
• National anthem – 'Yiyongjun Jinxingqu' ['The March of the Volunteers']
• National day – 1 October (Founding of People’s Republic)
• Death penalty – Retained
• CPI score – 3.6 (2011)

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Climate and Terrain

China is twice the size of western Europe and contains a vast range of landscapes and climates. The highest mountains are on the Tibetan plateau, in the west of the country, where the highest elevation is 8,850m (Mt Everest). To the north of the Tibetan plateau, the land drops to the arid, semi-desert steppes bisected by the Tian Shan mountains; the country’s lowest elevation is −154m at Turpan Pendi. The southern plains and east coast have the most fertile land, irrigated by the Huang He (Yellow), Chang Jiang (Yangtze) and Xi Jiang (West) rivers, and are the most heavily populated areas.

There are seven climate zones. The north-east has cold winters, fierce winds, warm and humid summers and erratic rainfall. The mountainous south-west has mild winters and warm summers. Inner Mongolia has cold winters and hot summers. Central China has warm and humid summers with occasional tropical cyclones. South China is partly tropical with heavy rainfall. The high Tibet plateau is subject to harsh winters. Xinjiang and the west have a desert climate, with cold winters and little rain.

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History and Politics

China timeline

The Communist Party of China is the dominant political party, and all elements of the political system are subordinate to it. A party congress is held every five years and elects the Politburo and its standing committee. This standing committee is the policy- and decision-making body and the de facto government.

Under the 1982 constitution, the National People’s Congress is the highest organ of state power. It has 2,987 members, indirectly elected for a five-year term, and holds only one full session a year; between sessions, its work is delegated to its standing committee. The congress elects the premier and, on his nomination, the State Council. The head of state is the president, also elected by the congress, who serves a five-year term, renewable once.

Deputies to people's congresses at the primary level are directly elected by the voters from a list of approved candidates. These congresses elect the deputies to the congress at the next highest level. Deputies to the National People’s Congress are elected by the provincial and municipal people’s congresses, and by the armed forces.

Local government is conducted through people’s governments at provincial/municipal, prefecture/city, county/district, township and village levels. There are 22 provinces (Taiwan is claimed as a 23rd province), four municipalities directly under the central government, five autonomous regions, and two special administrative areas; provinces may contain autonomous counties or towns for ethnic minorities.

In 2003 Hu Jintao was elected by the National People’s Congress as the new state president and Wen Jaibao was elected as premier; both were re-elected to their posts at the 2008 party congress. Hu is pursuing policies in health, education, the environment and other areas which are intended to address the social inequalities created by the economic growth of recent years.

HEAD OF STATE

President, Hu Jintao, elected 15 March 2003, re-elected March 2008
Vice-President, Xi Jinping

STATE COUNCIL as at May 2012

Premier, Wen Jiabao
Vice-Premiers, Zhang Dejiang; Li Keqiang; Hui Liangyu; Wang Qishan
State Councillors, Dai Bingguo; Liang Guanglie (National Defence); Meng Jianzhu (Public Security); Ma Kai (Secretary-General of the State Council); Liu Yandong

SELECTED GOVERNMENT MEMBERS as at May 2012

Civil Affairs, Li Liguo
Finance, Xie Xuren
Foreign Affairs, Yang Jiechi

EMBASSY OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

49–51 Portland Place, London W1B 1JL
T 020-7299 4049 W www.chinese-embassy.org.uk
Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, HE Liu Xiaoming, apptd 2010

BRITISH EMBASSY

11 Guang Hua Lu, Jian Guo Men Wai, Beijing 100600
T (+86) (10) 5192 4000 E consular.beijing@fco.gov.uk W ukinchina.fco.gov.uk
Ambassador, HE Sebastian Wood, apptd 2010

Human Rights

Liberalisation has allowed ordinary people greater personal choice: they can now travel freely, for example, or change professions. However, freedom of expression, religion and association are still tightly controlled, and the regime firmly suppresses dissent by ethnic minorities or other groups that it perceives as a threat to its authority. This has led to moves against separatists from the Uygur Muslim minority group in Xinjiang Autonomous Region since the 1990s, the banning of the Falun Gong spiritual movement in 1999 and the violent suppression of demonstrations in Tibet in 2008. Religious gatherings that have not been approved by the state-sanctioned religious bodies are broken up by the authorities and their leaders harassed; despite this, all religions are experiencing a revival throughout China, and underground Protestant churches in particular are growing rapidly.

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Defence

All three military arms are parts of the People's Liberation Army (PLA).

Military expenditure – US$129,272m (2011)
Conscription duration – 24 months (selective)

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Economy and Trade

Liberalisation since the 1980s has transformed the economy, developing a more autonomous state sector, a rapidly growing private sector and a leading presence in global trade and investment. A massive industrial base and transport infrastructure have been constructed, especially in the coastal regions, and the economy has become a free market in all but name, with several stock markets and Shanghai’s emergence as a financial centre. China attracts considerable foreign investment and has become a major investor overseas. GDP has grown more than ten-fold since 1978, and by some measures China's economy is now the second-largest in the world.

Although some 250 million people who migrated to urban areas have been lifted out of poverty in the past two decades, the effects of the rapid transformation have been unevenly distributed. In 2012 it was reported China's city dwellers outnumber China's rural population for the first time; there are wide income differences between urban and rural areas, poor healthcare provision, lack of access to public services for migrant workers, rampant official corruption and environmental degradation of land, water and air. The government is also keen to increase domestic consumption (a priority of the 2011–16 five-year plan), and so reduce the economy's reliance on exports for growth, especially as foreign demand slowed in 2008 and plummeted in 2009 owing to the global economic downturn.

China's expansion boosted its need for oil and coal, met initially by imports but increasingly by domestic production. However, to achieve its aim of reducing environmental degradation, China is looking more to nuclear power (although nuclear approval has been suspended indefinitely owing to safety concerns following the Fukushima Daiichi plant disaster in Japan) and alternative energy generation, such as hydroelectric power from the Three Gorges Dam.

Although rural areas have seen few benefits from the economic transformation and are suffering the effects of rural depopulation and pollution, agriculture remains important; it contributes 10.1 per cent of GDP but employs 36.7 per cent of the workforce. The main crops are rice, cereals, vegetables, peanuts, tea, fruit, cotton and oilseed crops. Livestock is raised in large numbers. Silk farming is one of the oldest industries. Cotton, woollen and silk textiles are manufactured in large quantities.

The highly diversified industrial sector, encompassing heavy industry, manufacturing and construction, contributes 46.8 per cent of GDP and employs 28.7 per cent of the workforce. The services sector accounts for 43.1 per cent of GDP and 34.6 per cent of employment. Tourism is now a major industry.

Exports include machinery, electrical equipment, data processing equipment, garments, textiles, iron and steel, and optical and medical equipment. The principal imports are electrical and other machinery, oil and mineral fuels, optical and medical equipment, metal ores, plastics and organic chemicals. The main trading partners are the USA, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, and Germany, although trade with Latin America and Africa is growing.

GNI – US$5,957,012m; US$4,270 per capita (2010)
Annual average growth of GDP – 9.5 per cent (2011 est)
Inflation rate – 5.4 per cent (2011 est)
Population below poverty line – 2.8 per cent (2007 est; based on a poverty line of US$125 per year)
Unemployment – 9 per cent (2009 est)
Total external debt – US$635,500m (2011 est)
Imports – US$1,394,690m (2010)
Exports – US$1,578,270m (2010)

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Trade – US$183,580m surplus (2010)
Current Account – US$305,300m surplus (2010)

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Communications

Airports – There are over 500 airports and airfields and several national air carriers

Waterways – The main seaports are Shanghai and Dalian in the north, and Guangzhou in the south; there are 110,000km of navigable waterways, Nanjing is the largest river port, and the Huang He (Yellow), Chang Jiang (Yangtze) and Xi Jiang (West) are the most significant river routes

Railways – The rail system has 86,000km of track, although only 36,000km is electrified; extension of the Qinghai–Tibet railway is opening up the remote western province

Roadways – The 3.8 million km road network allows access to all towns and villages, and the major cities are linked by 65,000km of modern highways

Telecommunications – 294.3 million fixed lines in use and 859 mobile subscriptions (2010); there were 389 million internet users in 2009

Internet code and IDD – cn; 86 (from UK) 44 (to UK)

Major broadcasters – The Communist Party maintains a firm grip on the media and the internet. Television is the most popular medium in a huge media industry; state-run stations offer around 2,100 channels, and in 2010 over 175m households had cable subscription services

Press – Every city has its own newspaper, as well as a local Communist Party publication; approximately 2,000 newspapers are published every week

WPFI score – 84,67 (171)

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Education and Health

Primary education lasts six years and secondary education six years (three years in junior middle school and three optional years in senior middle school).

Literacy rate – 94.0 per cent (2009 est)
Gross enrolment ratio (percentage of relevant age group) – primary 111 per cent; secondary 80 per cent; tertiary 24 per cent (2009 est)
Health expenditure (per capita) – US$177 (2009)
Hospital beds (per 1,000 people) – 4.1 (2004–9)
Life expectancy (years) – 74.68 (2011 est)
Mortality rate – 7.03 (2011 est)
Birth rate – 12.29 (2011 est)
Infant mortality rate – 16.06 (2011 est)

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Culture

The Chinese language has many dialects, notably Cantonese, Hakka, Amoy, Foochow, Changsha, Nanchang, Wu (Shanghai) and the northern dialect. The common speech, or putonghua (often referred to as Mandarin), is based on the northern dialect. The Communists have promoted it as the national language and it is taught throughout the country. Because putonghua encourages the use of the spoken language in writing, the old literary style and ideographic form of writing has fallen into disuse. Since 1956, simplified characters have been introduced to make reading and writing easier. In 1958 the National People’s Congress adopted a system of romanisation known as pinyin.

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Tibet

Area – 1,199,164 sq. km
Population – 2,610,000 (2001 est)
Capital – Lhasa

Tibet is a plateau, seldom lower than 3,000m, in south-west China. It forms the frontier with India (boundary imperfectly demarcated), from which it is separated by the Himalayas from Kashmir to Myanmar; Nepal and Bhutan also border it to the south. The Indus, Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze rivers all rise on the Tibet plateau.

Tibet was under Mongol rule almost continuously from the 13th to the 17th centuries. Chinese control grew from the 18th century and direct rule began in 1910, but with the collapse of the Chinese Empire in 1911, Tibet declared its independence and the Dalai Lama ruled undisturbed until Communist rule was established in China. In 1950 Chinese Communist forces invaded Tibet, and in 1951 the Tibetan authorities signed a treaty agreeing joint Chinese-Tibetan rule. A series of revolts against Chinese rule culminated in a 1959 uprising in the capital, which was crushed following several days of fighting after which military rule was imposed. The Dalai Lama fled to India where he and his followers were granted political asylum and established a government in exile. Tibet became an Autonomous Region of China in 1965. Martial law was declared in Tibet in 1989.

The Panchen Lama, the second-highest Lama, remained in Lhasa after 1959; when he died in 1989, China rejected the Dalai Lama’s choice of successor and enthroned its own candidate. Subsequent appointments have been handled in a similar manner. Despite occasional talks between the Chinese government and representatives of the Dalai Lama, relations remain poor. In March 2011, the Dalai Lama announced his intention to withdraw from political life, transferring leadership to Lobsang Sangay, prime minister of the Tibetan parliament.

Another source of tension is the large number of Chinese migrants who have settled in Tibet since the 1970s, a development that the Tibetan government-in-exile regards as an attempt to eradicate the culture of the Tibetan people. Chinese now considerably outnumber Tibetans and have benefited disproportionately from the economic development of recent years.

Peaceful anti-Chinese demonstrations in Tibet increased in early 2008 as the imminence of the Beijing Olympics put China's human rights record under greater international scrutiny. The violence of the Chinese crackdown was condemned worldwide, and pro-Tibet activists abroad disrupted the Olympic torch relay in several countries. Resistance and unrest continue: in 2009, in a show of passive resistance, farmers in Tibet and neighbouring provinces refused to till the fields or plant crops; in 2011, demonstrations sparked by the self-immolation of a Tibetan monk in the Sechuan province led to hundreds of arrests.

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Special Administrative Regions

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Hong Kong

Xianggang Tebie Xingzhengqu – Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Area – 1,104 sq. km
Currency – Hong Kong dollar (HK$) of 100 cents
Population – 7,153,519 rising at 0.421 per cent a year (2012 est)
Population density – 6,783 per sq. km (2010)
Flag – Red, with a white bauhinia flower of five petals each containing a red star
National day – 1 July (Establishment Day)
Death penalty – Abolished for all crimes (since 2003)
CPI score – 8.4 (2011)

Climate and Terrain

Hong Kong consists of Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and the New Territories (on a peninsula of the mainland in Guangdong province) and over 260 islands, including Lantau Island. Hong Kong Island is about 18km long and 3–8km wide. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait. The highest point is Tai Mo Shan (958m). The climate is subtropical, with hot, wet summers and cool, dry winters. Mean monthly temperatures range from 16°C to 29°C. Tropical cyclones occur between May and November, and over 75 per cent of the average annual rainfall of 2,398mm falls between May and September.

History and Politics

Hong Kong developed as a major regional trading port because of its location on the main Far Eastern trade routes. Hong Kong Island was first occupied by Britain in 1841 and formally ceded to Britain in 1842. Kowloon was acquired in 1860, and the New Territories by a 99-year lease signed in 1898.

In 1984, the UK and China agreed that China would resume sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997, and on 1 July 1997, Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of the People’s Republic of China. The 1984 joint declaration and the Basic Law (1990) guarantee that the SAR’s social and economic systems will remain unchanged for 50 years and grant it a high degree of autonomy.

Although the Basic Law provides for the development of democratic processes, political reform has been slow, prompting frequent demonstrations to demand full democracy or to oppose measures perceived to be repressive. In 2007 the Chinese government said that the chief executive could be directly elected from 2017 and the legislature members from 2020.

Leung Chun-ying was elected chief executive in March 2012, beating closest rival Henry Tang; Chun-ying replaced Donald Tsang, who served two terms between 2005 and 2012. In the 2008 legislative elections, pro-China parties won 35 seats and pro-democracy parties won 23, sufficient for the pro-democracy parties to veto constitutional changes.

The Basic Law, approved in 1990, has served as Hong Kong's constitution since 1997. Its government is headed by the chief executive, who is elected by a 1200-member electoral committee and serves a five-year term. The chief executive is aided by an executive council consisting of 15 principal officials, who are the heads of administrative departments, and 14 non-official members. The legislative council consists of 70 members, 35 directly elected by geographic constituencies, and 30 elected by functional, occupation-based constituencies; they serve a four-year term.

Chief Executive, Leung Chun-ying, elected 25 March 2012, sworn in 1 July 2012

SELECTED GOVERNMENT MEMBERS as at July 2012

Chief Secretary for Administration, Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor
Financial Secretary, John Tsang Chun-wah
Secretary for Justice, Rimsky Yuen Kowk-Keung

BRITISH CONSULATE-GENERAL

PO Box 528, 1 Supreme Court Road, Central Hong Kong
T (+852) 2901 3000 E consular@bcg.org.hk W ukinhongkong.fco.gov.uk
Consul-General, Andrew Seaton, apptd 2008

Economy and Trade

The economy has moved away from manufacturing (which has mostly relocated to mainland China) and is now service-based, with a high reliance on international trade and re-exports. It has developed into a regional corporate and banking centre, and has benefited in recent years from closer integration with China through increased trade, tourism and financial links. Although badly affected by the global economic downturn in 2008–9, the strength of the Chinese economy helped it to recover quickly.

The economy is dominated by the service sector, which accounts for 92.6 per cent of GDP. The main contributors to this are tourism, financial services and shipping. Industry contributes 7 per cent of GDP. Principal products are textiles, clothing, electronics, plastics, toys, clocks and watches.

The principal export markets are China (52.4 per cent), the USA and Japan. China is Hong Kong’s principal supplier of imported goods (44.9 per cent).

GNI – US$229,164m; US$32,780 per capita (2010)
Annual average growth of GDP – 5 per cent (2011 est)
Inflation rate – 5.3 per cent (2011 est)
Unemployment – 3.4 per cent (2011 est)
Imports – US$433,193m (2010)
Exports – US$390,174m (2010)

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Trade – US$43,019m deficit (2010)
Current Account – US$13,933m surplus (2010)

Education and Health

Education is free and compulsory for children up to age 15.

Gross enrolment ratio (percentage of age group) – primary 102 per cent; secondary 83 per cent; tertiary 60 per cent (2010 est)
Life expectancy (years) – 82.12 (2012 est)
Birth rate – 7.54 (2012 est)
Mortality rate – 7.23 (2012 est)
Infant mortality rate – 2.9 (2012 est)

Communications

Airports – There are two airports, one accommodating international flights

Waterways – Hong Kong has one of the world's finest natural harbours, and is the fifth-busiest container port in the world. Dockyard facilities include eight floating drydocks; the largest is capable of docking vessels of up to 150,000 tonnes deadweight

Roadways – There are 2,067km of roads (2010)

Telecommunications – 4.345 million fixed lines and 13.146 million mobile subscriptions (2010); there were 4.873 million internet users in 2009

Internet code and IDD – hk; 852 (from UK) 1 44 (to UK)

WPFI score – 10,75 (35)

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Macau (Aomen)

Aomen Tebie Xingzhengqu – Macau Special Administrative Region
Area – 28.2 sq. km
Currency – Pataca of 100 avos
Population – 578,025 rising at 0.866 per cent a year (2012 est)
Population density – 19,416 per sq. km (2010)
Flag – Green, with a white lotus flower above a white stylised bridge and water, under a large gold five-point star and four gold stars in crescent
National day – 20 December (Establishment Day)
CPI score – 5.1 (2011)
Internet code and IDD – mo; 853 (from UK), 44 (to UK)

Climate and Terrain

Macau consists of the Macau peninsula and the islands of Coloane and Taipa. It is situated at the western side of the mouth of the Pearl river, bordering Guangdong province in south-east China. It is 64km from Hong Kong. Its area has nearly doubled since the 19th century due to land reclamation. The highest point is Coloane Alto (172m). The climate is subtropical.

History and Politics

The first Portuguese ship arrived at Macau in 1513 and trade with China commenced in 1553. Macau became a Portuguese colony in 1557; China recognised Portugal’s sovereignty over Macau by treaty in 1887. An agreement to transfer the administration of Macau to China was signed in 1987, and Macau became the Macau Special Administrative Region (MSAR) of China on 20 December 1999. Fernando Chui was elected unopposed as chief executive in 2009, and the most recent legislative election was held in September 2009.

The Basic Law (1993) has served as Macao’s constitution since 1999. The chief executive is elected by a 300-member election committee and serves a five-year term of office, which may be renewed once. The chief executive is assisted by the ten-member executive council. The legislative assembly has 29 members, who serve for four years; 12 are directly elected in geographic constituencies, ten are indirectly elected in functional constituencies and seven are appointed by the chief executive.

Chief Executive, Fernando Chui Sai On, elected July 2009, sworn in 20 December 2009

SELECTED GOVERNMENT MEMBERS as at May 2012

Economy and Finance, Francis Tam Pak Yuen
Secretary for Administration and Justice, Florinda Rosa Silva Chan

CONSUL-GENERAL

Andrew Seaton, apptd 2008, resident at Hong Kong

Economy and Trade

The economy is based on tourism and gambling, which have grown rapidly since 2001, and garment and textile manufacturing, which is in decline. Visitors totalled nearly 25 million in 2010, the majority coming from mainland China, where gambling is illegal. The service sector contributes about 97.1 per cent of GDP and industry 2.8 per cent. The principal products and exports are clothing, textiles, footwear, toys, electronics, machinery and parts. The main trading partners are Hong Kong, China and the USA.

GNI – US$20,738m; US$39,550 per capita (2009)
Annual average growth of GDP – 1 per cent (2009 est)
Inflation rate – 3.9 per cent (2011)
Imports – US$5,527m (2010)
Exports – US$870m (2010)

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Trade – US$4,657m deficit (2010)
Current Account – US$6,238m surplus (2009)

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